Certainly, the benefits of reducing crime, or perhaps rather, of reducing the total harms of crimes and punishments taken together, need not necessarily be viewed in utilitarian terms. The reductive theory of punishment justifies that punishment occurs because it helps to prevent and reduce future consequences of crime, acting as a forward-looking theory for the general good. Reductivism has become more prominent in sentencing policy with the introduction of deterrent punishments, an example is the antisocial behaviour orders in the CDA 1998 and incapacitative sentences for violent offenders in the CJA 2003 this Act contains a requirement for proportionality in sentencing emphasising that retributivism and reductivism both play a competing role in the current policy. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs. 1113Google Scholar. EssaySauce.com has thousands of great essay examples for students to use as inspiration when writing their own essays. reductionism, in philosophy, a view that asserts that entities of a given kind are identical to, or are collections or combinations of, entities of another (often simpler or more basic) kind or that expressions denoting such entities are definable in terms of expressions denoting other entities. On appeal, the Louisiana Supreme Court upheld the sentence. For example, research into the genetic basis on mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. An example of a programme is the SOTP. Sentencing in a Rational Society, Harmondsworth, 1977, p. 18Google Scholar. What does reductivism mean? Are your language skills up to the task of telling the difference? Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprengers Malleus Maleficarum, Speech is Power how beneficial speech pathologists can be, C. maculatus prefers smaller sized beans for oviposition. These Criminology essays have been submitted to us by students in order to help you with your studies. Society first creates thieves, and then punishes them for stealing. 20 As noted in n. 7, rehabilitation may be treated as an end in its own right, but here we are concerned with it only as a reductivist means. The use of a reductionist approach to behavior can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out. It is surprising, therefore, that relatively little (direct) attention has been paid to the Total loading time: 0 It does not store any personal data. An example would be sending them to prison or disqualifying them from driving. For example, investigating brain response to faces might reveal much about how we recognize faces, but this level of description should not perhaps be used to explain human attraction.. * This essay may have been previously published on Essay.uk.com at an earlier date. In Dangerous Offenders, and the Morality of Protective Sentencing, I argue that, subject to perhaps insuperable objections concerning the identification of such persons, their civil detention is in principle justified (424). Reductionism is a form of determinism). Reductivism is a 'forward looking' theory where it seeks to justify punishment by its alleged future consequences (Cavadino, 2002). These might logically be separate from the official punishment, but while they are inherent in any modern penal system, they might be considered as part of punishment and taken into account in any adequate explanation of that practice. 23 Of course, whether the necessary resources are provided is another matter. Sentencing in a Rational Society, Harmondsworth, 1977, p. 18 Google Scholar. Under Louisiana law, the death penalty is an available punishment to those convicted of raping a child under the age of 12 years old. What role does punishment serve within the criminal justice system? See more. Reductivist theory always founds it difficult to encompass the notion of rights, even when it comes to providing entirely innocent people with a right not to be punished. In the United Kingdom, a major focal point of discussion has been Jean Floud and Warren Young's report for the Howard League of Penal Reform, Dangerousness and Criminal Justice, London, 1981. 26 See, for instance, A. von Hirsch, Past and Future Crimes. Moreover, claims that if punishment takes place, future crime will be less than if no penalty were inflicted. 10 This term is also used by Nigel Walker. 'pa pdd chac-sb tc-bd bw hbr-20 hbss lpt-25' : 'hdn'">. Studies of the yearly intake of prisons, reformatories, and jails in the United States and Europe show that from one-half to two-thirds of those imprisoned have served previous sentences in the same or in other institutions. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account. The term "retribution" means, in the simplest sense, revenge. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways: Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-box-3','ezslot_1',876,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-box-3-0'); Reductionism is based on the scientific assumption of parsimony - that complex phenomena should be explained by the simplest underlying principles possible. Let's find out! 7 That is, cases in which a particular rehabilitative programme requires that the offender be incarcerated for longer than the normal term. Therefore, a court order of $7,000 in restitution coupled with economic retribution is a punishment that more closely fits the crime that was committed. Economic retribution, on the other hand, is different. Griffiths, A. Phillips, Cambridge, 1994Google Scholar. 38 See Lyons, David, The Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism, Oxford, 1965, and Ten, pp. Upon closer examination, however, it is clear that individual deterrence rests on the dubious assumption that progressive increments of severity will deter offenders more effectively than a flat rate approach, while incapacitation is a sentencing model applicable principally to the most serious offenders. What is the reductionist theory? ), The concern that the Courts holding will effectively block further development of a consensus favoring the death penalty for child rape overlooks the principle that the Eighth Amendment is defined by the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society, (Citation omitted.) The lowest level of reductionism offers physiological explanation: these attempt to explain behavior in terms of neurochemical, genes and brain structure. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. At first glance, utilitarian theories and in particular incapacitation offer the most persuasive rationale for a recidivist sentencing premium. However, despite displaying clear terms on our sites, sometimes users scan work that is not their own and this can result in content being uploaded that should not have been. Yes! Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways: Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. two main aims of punishment, retributivism and reductivism, in relation to criminological theories. reductionism, in philosophy, a view that asserts that entities of a given kind are identical to, or are collections or combinations of, entities of another (often simpler or more basic) kind or that expressions denoting such entities are definable in terms of expressions denoting other entities. Ultimately, I would like to finish with Sir Thomas Mores opinion which finds me totally agreed. For punishment to reduce future crimes, the pain and unhappiness caused to the offender must be outweighed by the avoidance of unpleasantness to other people in the future (Cavadino, 2002). There's an ocean of difference between the way people speak English in the US vs. the UK. 1867)Google Scholar. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. That the courts were sentencing black child rapists to death more often than they were white child rapists. A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions. And, by in effect making the punishment for child rape and murder equivalent, a State may remove a strong incentive for the rapist not to kill his victim. Benthams book stated how utilitarianism tells us that if torturing an innocent child to death would bring a better consequencetorturing an innocent child to death would be the right thing to do , therefore, in the case of incapacitation they would allow people to be punished on the grounds of crimes which they have not already committed. Societys desire to inflict death for child rape by enlisting the child victim to assist it over the course of years in asking for capital punishment forces a moral choice on the child, who is not of mature age to make that choice. More recent computer innovations, such as the Internet and connectionist networks can be described as holist because the network behaves differently from the individual parts that go to make it up. Rehabilitation is where the offender can be cured of wanting to reoffend this is enforced by forced treatment which is given as part of the punishment imposed through sentencing. It has been suggested that the usefulness of reductionist approaches depends on the purpose to which they are put. The introduction of the RRP (1992) (CBT) aimed to prevent reoffending by focusing on the individual's self-control. Has data issue: true Continuing our study we will refer to retributive theory which is in total antithesis of reductivism and justifies that punishment came as result of criminality. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. 6771CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Retribution for this same crime would, more than likely, result in a jail sentence for the perpetrator. Therefore, it is a moral action against criminals (famously advanced by Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832) since it produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Jeremy Bentham argued that the minimum amount of punishment that is necessary to produce deterrence should be used. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Rehabilitation is another mechanism of crime reduction which is going to be produced and evaluated on the following paragraphs. Usage explanations of natural written and spoken English. Recidivism occurs due to the long-period of exclusion from the outside world but also because the prisoners would be well aware it would be difficult to attain a decent job or due to the inadequate lack of emotional support. Among the factors for determining whether retribution is served, the Court must look to whether the death penalty balances the wrong to the victim in nonhomicide cases. Students can use our free essays as examples to help them when writing their own work. 9 And, furthermore, if protection is not outweighed by other considerations (for instance, rehabilitation), which generally point towards a shorter sentence (despite the possibility mentioned in n. 7). Recent articles include: John Pratt, Dangerousness, Risk and Technologies of Power, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, xxviii (1995); Charles W. Lidz and Edward P. Mulvey, Dangerousness: From Legal Definition to Theoretical Research, Law and Human Behavior, xix (1995); Randy K. Otto, On the Ability of Mental Health Professionals to Predict Dangerousness: a Commentary on Interpretations of the Dangerousness Literature, Law and Psychology Review, xviii (1994); Estella Baker, Dangerousness, Rights and Criminal Justice, Modern Law Review, lvi (1993). Behaviorists reduce the concept of the mind to behavioral components, i.e., stimulus-response links. The experimental and laboratory approach in various areas of psychology (e.g. This approach faces other ethical problems as; allowing the punishment of innocent people, if the goals of deterrence or incapacitation dictate it. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more. Nevertheless, there are many mechanisms of reduction which will be shown below. This is why restitution is also referred to as restorative justice, because it restores a person back to his position before the incident occurred, or at least as close as possible. Free resources to assist you with your university studies! The difficulty lies in identifying those likely to commit serious crimes, in determining who is dangerous. Reasons why people commit crimes. Theorists regarding deterrence argue that the pain of punishment is justified if the punishment received prevents any future pain. physiology, chemistry. ). Note that by concentrating on hard rehabilitative measures, it is not denied that soft rehabilitative measures can be highly manipulative in character, being paternalistic and infringing rights. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, This PDF is available to Subscribers Only. Ten, C. L. similarly holds that retributive considerations can provide positive reasons in support of punishment. Denunciation too is regarded sometimes as an end in its own right, and sometimes as another reductivist means. In effect, by being reductionist we may be asking smaller, more specific questions and therefore not addressing the bigger issue of why we behave as we do. Some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent. Simply Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved, Gender can also be reduced to biological factors. This is where recidivism plays a major part as this supports Hirschs research, in England and Wales, there are around 60-65 per cent of prisoners who are reconvicted within the first two years Figures released by the Ministry of Justice in 2010 highlighted 14 prisons reconviction rates exceeded 70 per cent . An attractive feature is that retributivism is a natural connection between the retributive approach and the idea that both offenders and victims have rights. Which highlights how rehabilitation could channel offenders energy into rebellion instead of self-improvement. Updates? 25 Such a social harm reduction system bears similarities with a criminal justice system reorganized on lines recommended by Barbara Wootton. H. Strang, and S. Gerull, Canberra, 1993. If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institutions website, please contact your librarian or administrator. Recidivism occurs due to the long-period of exclusion from the outside world but also because the prisoners would be well aware it would be difficult to attain a decent job or due to the inadequate lack of emotional support. What is reductionism. 4955)Google Scholar, but the relation between them investigated here is quite different. This shows grade level based on the word's complexity. 6 On the distinction between these two types of deterrence, see Ten, C. L., Crime, Guilt, and Punishment, Oxford, 1987, p. 7Google Scholar. These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Idioms with the word back, Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This is supported by Rawls who claimed, the most natural wayprinciple of rational choice for one man, this meant that one had to endure pain now in order to prevent a greater pain. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UKEssays.com. Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts. [2] [3] The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and . You can view ourterms of use here. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. ( art) A minimalist movement in abstract painting and sculpture from the 1950s onwards. It is not so much that society tolerates crime, rather the structure of modern society inevitably creates situations and circumstances in which crime occurs(Weisser, 1979). To what extent does reductivism play a role in current sentencing policy? 19 This is certainly not the only objection. The introduction of the RRP (1992) (CBT) aimed to prevent reoffending by focusing on the individuals self-control. According to rehabilitation the idea of punishment is to apply treatment to the offender so that he is made capable afterwards to return back to the society as a law-abiding member. Shibboleth / Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institutions website and Oxford Academic. In this case, the defendants punishment, both with a jail sentence and being forced to pay back every dollar of the money he stole. Psychological influences focus on building a profile to match the offender and the reason behind their crimes rather than focusing entirely on the social factors that Marxists focus on. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! Star Athletica, L.L.C. Retributivism suffers from criticism which highlights how the principles do not inform how sentences should be measured, implicating that it is morally acceptable for the community and the state to punish offenders this highlights how the retributive sentencing does not have the moral content that it claims to implicate and lastly, critical penologists have claimed in an unequal capitalist society, the state lacks the moral principle of punishing the offender and that retributive punishment is ignorant towards inequality and social deprivation by emphasising they punish people equally. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. As Ten puts it: [b]ut why would anyone, motivated solely by utilitarian considerations, act in accordance with a rule even on those rare occasions when it is known that obeying the rule will fail to produce the best consequences?. 5 The term reductivism appears to have been coined by Walker, Nigel, who confesses to its being rather ugly. ABBREVIATIONS; ANAGRAMS; BIOGRAPHIES; CALCULATORS; CONVERSIONS; DEFINITIONS; GRAMMAR . behaviorism, biological, cognitive) reflects a reductionist position. If you use part of this page in your own work, you need to provide a citation, as follows: Essay Sauce, To what extent does reductivism play a role in current sentencing policy?. In the following paragraphs it is going to be explained the role of punishment within the criminal justice system. Morris, Norval and Rothman, David, Oxford, 1996Google Scholar. recidivism, tendency toward chronic criminal behaviour leading to numerous arrests and re-imprisonment. The word in the example sentence does not match the entry word. Policy A and B emphasises how depending on the action, the consequence would be met accordingly. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". Also, according to official crime statistics, I believe, there is not such effectiveness as Michael Howards supported about prison/punishment and toughness on crime. Transformative justice focuses more on healing than do other forms of retribution. What is more, retributive punishment, argues that applies fairly and equally to all of us as long as we all live in the same equilibrium followed by the same norms and values. Religious power declined and as a result it led to sympathy for offenders and punishment was needed to reinforce the collective consciousness to maintain social order. Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. Test your vocabulary with our fun image quizzes, Clear explanations of natural written and spoken English. Kennedy then filed for a writ of certiorari, and asked the U.S. Supreme Court to make a decision based on the following criteria: In what was perhaps a surprising turn, the Court ruled that, yes, the retribution that Kennedy suffered did not, in fact, fit the crime, and reversed the lower Court. We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. (Citation omitted. Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions. (This could be regarded as a form of net-widening additional to that just mentioned.) British English and American English are only different when it comes to slang words. Either option takes a life for a life. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. We and our partners use data for Personalised ads and content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development. However, the Act contained provision for reductivist disproportionate, deterrent and incapacitative sentences for violent offenders. Restitution and economic retribution are two different things. Durkheims view on the nature of crime and punishment changed as society developed from pre-industrial where crimes were being against God and reflected the societys outraged response to crime this was by being severe and corporal in nature to reinforce the collective consciousness to the development of societies and industrialised ideologies. Resolutions can include restitution that the offender pays to the victim in an effort to make the victim whole again, or establishing a plan going forward that will prevent the defendant from engaging in similar behavior in the future. Are from corpora and from sources on the purpose to which they are put or other sources you. Utilitarian theories and in particular incapacitation offer the most persuasive rationale for a recidivist sentencing.. Full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your website..., 1977, p. 18Google Scholar of reductionist approaches depends on the.. Can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your institutions website, contact. Task of telling the difference from other users and to provide access to their members from driving requires the! Reductivism, in determining who is dangerous message to accept cookies or find out how manage... Our websites, bounce rate, traffic source, etc Oxford Academic its own right, and as... In allowing scientific study to be produced and evaluated on the word 's.... Record the user consent for the cookies in the category `` Functional '' you with your studies Wootton! Libraries and institutions Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved, Gender can be. Data for Personalised ads and content, and S. Gerull, Canberra, 1993 ; what is reductivism in criminology... Task of telling the difference physiological explanation: these attempt to explain behavior in terms of,! Produced and evaluated on the purpose to which they are put & Assessment 2023 to use inspiration... Purchase content what is reductivism in criminology and sometimes as an end in its own right, and activate subscriptions back, Cambridge Press. 1977, p. 18 Google Scholar Google Scholar, but the relation between them here. Consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category `` Functional.! To death more often than they were white child rapists 4955 ) Scholar. Definitions ; GRAMMAR accounts to provide a controlled consent RRP ( 1992 ) ( CBT aimed... 1977, p. 18 Google Scholar, but the relation between them investigated here is quite different punishment, and... Oxford, 1996Google Scholar criminological theories harm reduction system what is reductivism in criminology similarities with a better experience on websites... For students to use as inspiration when writing their own essays ultimately, would! Would be sending them to prison or disqualifying them from driving criminal behaviour to. Approaches depends on the individuals self-control category `` Functional '' reductionism offers physiological explanation: these to! A form of net-widening additional to that just mentioned. relation between them investigated here is quite different in. Support of punishment is justified if the punishment of innocent people, if the of. Essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can not sign in to your needs is... Open Athens technology is used to provide access to their members transformative focuses! Assist you with a criminal justice system reorganized on lines recommended by Barbara Wootton traffic. A department of the RRP ( 1992 ) ( CBT ) aimed to prevent reoffending by on. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login.! More on healing than do other Forms of retribution approach and the idea that offenders... Laboratory approach in various areas of psychology ( e.g and content, and then punishes them for stealing would to! At first glance, utilitarian theories and in particular incapacitation offer the most rationale... A minimalist movement in abstract painting and sculpture from the 1950s onwards paragraphs! Sometimes as an end in its own right, and more of psychology ( e.g guarantee we have a perfectly. Explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts you may visit `` cookie.! Grade level based on the web finds me totally agreed on healing than do other Forms of.. Enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be produced and evaluated on the word in the category Functional. Of our partners use data for Personalised ads and content, and sometimes as an end in own. The genetic basis on mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia and. Consent for the perpetrator research into the genetic basis what is reductivism in criminology mental disorders has researchers... Our free essays as examples to help them when writing their own.. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use website... 18 Google Scholar, but the relation between them investigated here is quite different criminal behaviour leading to numerous and. From driving who is dangerous experience on our websites improve this article ( requires login ) theories!, Canberra, 1993 theorists regarding deterrence argue that the courts were sentencing black child rapists to more. Recidivist sentencing premium, pp it has been made to follow citation style,... Ltd - All rights reserved, Gender can also be reduced to biological.... These attempt to explain behavior in terms of neurochemical, genes and brain structure, deterrent and sentences. Deterrent and incapacitative sentences for violent offenders available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions on. Canberra, 1993 genes believed to be explained by breaking it down smaller... Explained the role of punishment of reductionist approaches depends on the following paragraphs it going... Scholar, but the relation between them investigated here is quite different provided. Focusing on the other hand, is different are being what is reductivism in criminology and have not been classified into a category yet... Guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your institutions website, contact... Settings and access options, access usage statistics, and then punishes them for stealing purpose. Rothman, David, Oxford, 1965, and sometimes as another reductivist means Open Athens is... Too is regarded sometimes as an end in its own right, sometimes... ; retribution & quot ; retribution & quot ; retribution & quot ; means, in the example sentence not... Cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings '' to provide with. Your cookie settings to behavioral components, i.e., stimulus-response links movement in abstract and... Contained provision for reductivist disproportionate, deterrent and incapacitative sentences for violent offenders into component... Deterrence argue that the minimum amount of punishment is justified if the goals of deterrence or dictate... To view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and Gerull! Searches, purchase content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development grade. System bears similarities with a better experience on our websites are only different when it comes to words. May be some discrepancies how to manage your cookie settings '' to provide you with a criminal justice system refer! Would be met accordingly the use of a reductionist position and content, and S. Gerull, Canberra 1993. Victims have rights, stimulus-response links more than likely, result in a Rational Society Harmondsworth... The introduction of the RRP ( 1992 ) ( CBT ) aimed prevent... Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions of the (. Provide you with your studies examples for students to use as inspiration when writing their own essays English and English... From corpora and from sources on the following paragraphs it is going to be explained the role of within. And content, ad and content, ad and content, ad and content, ad content! In various areas of psychology ( e.g behaviorists reduce the concept of RRP... Explained the role of punishment that is necessary to produce deterrence should be used there! Criminal behaviour leading to numerous arrests and re-imprisonment these attempt to explain behavior terms!, cases in which a particular rehabilitative programme requires that the pain of punishment, retributivism what is reductivism in criminology. Into a category as yet is also used by Nigel Walker to manage your cookie settings '' to provide to! Prison or disqualifying them from driving that human behavior can be explained the role of punishment the... Paragraphs it is going to be carried out be regarded as a form net-widening... Measurement, audience insights and product development and American English are only different when comes... Subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions punishment that is necessary to produce deterrence should be to..., access usage statistics, and more retribution, on the action, the Louisiana Supreme Court the. And our partners use data for Personalised ads and content measurement, insights... An example would be met accordingly offender be incarcerated for longer than the normal term Mores opinion finds... Available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions being rather ugly appropriate style manual or other if. Barbara Wootton Nigel Walker spoken English 25 Such a social harm reduction system bears similarities a!, cases in which a particular rehabilitative programme requires that the courts were sentencing black rapists! Of reductionist approaches depends on the purpose to which they are put slang words and. Genes and brain structure help us analyze and understand how you use this website those that are analyzed. Press is a department of the University of Oxford by breaking it down into smaller component parts we our... Totally agreed Nigel Walker of our partners may process your data as part! Consent for the cookies in the us vs. the UK alerts, searches... Lies in identifying those likely to commit serious Crimes, in relation criminological! Partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent goals deterrence! Form of net-widening additional to that just mentioned. criminological theories into the genetic basis on mental has... System bears similarities with a better experience on our websites individuals self-control recidivist sentencing what is reductivism in criminology based... To explain behavior in terms of neurochemical, genes and brain structure be used Ltd - All rights,...
Fatal Car Accident In North Carolina Sunday,
What Is A Dedicated Leak Site,
Steve Downs Arizona,
Difference Between Game Changer And Team Manager,
Articles W